Tibetan is a group of people who primarily live on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and speak the Tibetan language. They are mainly distributed in the Tibet Autonomous Region, Qinghai Province, western Sichuan Province, Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province, Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province, and Tianzhu Tibetan Autonomous County, among other areas within the People’s Republic of China. As of 2016, the Tibetan population within China is estimated to be around 7 million, and the global Tibetan population is conservatively estimated to be over 10 million. In addition to China, Tibetans also live in surrounding countries such as Nepal, India, Bhutan, and Pakistan, as well as in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Australia.
In the 7th century AD, Songtsen Gampo unified the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and established the Tubo Dynasty. From the 10th to the 16th century, it was a period of cultural prosperity for the ancient Tibetan culture.
The Tibetan people are mainly engaged in animal husbandry and agriculture. They follow Tibetan Buddhism and wear traditional Tibetan clothing, with the Tibetan robe being the main attire. Their staple food is tsampa, and they consume a lot of beef and mutton. They enjoy drinking butter tea and qingke wine. In pastoral areas, they mostly live in tents, while in towns, they live in stone houses. Sky burial is common, and the Tibetan New Year is an important festival.
The Tibetan language used by Tibetans belongs to the Tibetan-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. It is mainly divided into three dialects: U-Tsang dialect, Kham dialect, and Amdo dialect.
Ethnic Name
In the Tibetan language, the region of U-Tsang is referred to as “Bo,” and the Tibetan people are called “Bo pa.”
Furthermore, Tibetans from different regions have different self-designations: those living in the Ali region of Tibet call themselves “Dui ba,” while those from the Kham region refer to themselves as “Zang ba.” The people from the Amdo region in the eastern part of Tibet, southwestern Qinghai, and western Sichuan identify as “Kampa,” and those residing in the northern part of Tibet, as well as northwest Sichuan, Gannan, and Qinghai, call themselves “Amdo wa.” The terms “pa” and “wa” in Tibetan mean “people.”
During the Tang Dynasty（AD618 – AD907）, the ruling power of the Tubo Kingdom was referred to as “Tubo.” “Tu” in the Tibetan language means “above” or “high place.” “Tubo” means “people who live in high place”. it originally referred to the people living in the Yarlung Tsangpo River basin, as called by the Tibetan ancestors from the surrounding areas of the Tibetan Plateau. Later, it became a general term for the Tibetan ethnic group living within the Tubo political jurisdiction.
During the Kangxi reign （AD 1661 – AD 1722） of the Qing Dynasty, the Qing government began using “Zang” or “Xizang” to refer to the region that is now the Tibet Autonomous Region (excluding the present-day Chamdo area). Based on the place name, the ethnic group living in the “Zang” region was called “Zang peple (Tibetan)” or “Zang min (Tibetan Ethnic Group).” In the late 19th century, the term “Zang zu” was used to designate the Tibetan ethnic group.
In addition, historical records also refer to Tibetans as “Fan zu,” “Pu,” “Fan pa,” “Bo pa,” “Bai pa,” “Bei fa,” “Fa Qiang,” and so on.
The Origin of Tibetan People
The question of the origin of humans in Tibet has been a highly debated topic with various opinions.
The book “Xian Zhe Xi Yan — The Feast of the Wise” repeats the traditional Tibetan belief of the union between the Monkey God and the Rock Demoness (sprul-pavi-spevu-brag-srin-vdus-pa). The “New Book of Tang – Tubo Biography” suggests that the migration of humans and Qiang people into Tibet is related to the origin of the Tibetan people.
According to the “Dunhuang Ancient Tibetan Historical Documents,” the earliest Tibetan ruler was believed to have descended from the heavens to become the ruler of the world. This is mentioned in the compilation by Ba Kao in “Dunhuang Ancient Tibetan Documents” on page 81. It seems that this belief has less religious connotations compared to the union between the Monkey God and the Rock Demoness. The handwritten manuscript of “Yong Zhong Bon History” also repeats the belief in the union between the monkey and the demoness.
However, Shenrab, who admires the Bon religion the most, believes that Tibetans are descendants of “six yellow luminous eggs”. The Bon history book “Origin of the Four Continents” states on page 7 that the Tibetan people are descendants of heavenly gods, specifically the seven children of the gods named Rug, Zhang, Bo, and Sgo.
In summary, there are nearly 10 different theories. The main ones include the theories of the West Qiang people, the Xianbei people, the lineage of the Indian King, the descendants of the Monkey God and the Rakshasi, the people from the Malay Peninsula, the people from Myanmar, the Mongolian people, the Iranian lineage, and the fusion of indigenous people with the Qiang.
It should be noted that out of these nearly 10 theories about the origin of the Tibetan people, most of them have some historical records in Tibetan and Chinese sources or certain evidence from ethnology and linguistics, although these pieces of evidence are not sufficient.
According to scientific investigations after 1951:
In July-August 1956, geologists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences discovered more than ten stone tools, including some believed to belong to the Paleolithic era, in the headwaters of the Yangtze River north of Heihe.
From 1966 to 1968, the Comprehensive Tibetan Expedition Team of the Chinese Academy of Sciences discovered 40 artificially crafted stone pieces, as well as scraping and pointed tools made from stone, on the southern slope of Sure Mountain, 10 kilometers southeast of Tingri County.
In 1976, the Comprehensive Scientific Expedition Team of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of the Chinese Academy of Sciences discovered 14 stone tools made from stone flakes in Zhuluo Le, Xainza County, northern Tibet. The tools include edge-cutting tools, end-scrapers, and pointed tools.
So far, researchers have preliminarily determined that there are five locations in Tibet where stone tools from the Paleolithic era have been found. They are Sure in Tingri County, Dugeze and Zhuluo Le in Xainza County, Zhabu in Rutok County, and the Huer District of Burang County.
These unearthed artifacts from the Paleolithic era indicate that “in what is now the inhospitable Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, there were ancient human activities approximately 10,000 to 50,000 years ago.” They are undoubtedly the earliest indigenous inhabitants of Tibet that we currently know of. Although limited by archaeological findings, we are currently unable to draw more substantial conclusions about their way of life. However, one thing is certain: the traditional belief that the ancestors of the Tibetan people migrated from outside Tibet, the so-called “foreign origin theory,” is fundamentally unfounded. Moreover, the discovery of Paleolithic cultural relics on the Tibetan Plateau suggests that the region could have been one of the origins of humanity.
Furthermore, the Old Stone Age artifacts in Tibet show similarities in craftsmanship, techniques, and forms with those from the Yellow River Basin. They share significant cultural factors. However, they are significantly different from the Old Stone Age artifacts discovered in the western Indian Nevasian and the Pakistani Soan, belonging to entirely different cultural systems.
The Paleolithic era was an important period in human history for the formation of races and the emergence of clans. The common cultural factors exhibited in the Paleolithic cultures of the Tibetan Plateau and the Yellow River Basin indicate that the ancient inhabitants of these two regions had some kind of close cultural or racial connection. On the other hand, they were relatively isolated from the ancient inhabitants of the Indus River Valley in India, with no cultural connection.
In 1978, the discovery of cultural relics at the Neolithic site of Karuo Village in Chamdo proved that Tibet had already entered the Neolithic era 4,800 years ago, and many unearthed artifacts were closely related to the culture of the Hexi Corridor. Chinese historical records also mention that in the later period of the primitive society, residents of the Di Qiang clan in the Yellow River Basin continuously migrated south from the Gansu-Qinghai region to the eastern end of the Tibetan Plateau, along the Yalong River and Min River valleys. For example, colored pottery and stone axes found in the Karuo site, which represent the Ma-jia-yao culture, have been discovered not only in the Karuo site but also in a vast area stretching from the eastern end of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to Yunnan. Scholars consider these as direct evidence of the migration of the primitive inhabitants of the Di Qiang clan, represented by the Ma-jia-yao culture, from the upstream region of the Yellow River into the Hengduan Mountains region. After entering the Hengduan Mountain area, some of them traveled along the Lancang River and Nu River, entered the eastern valleys of Tibet, and gradually merged with the local indigenous inhabitants engaged in hunting and primitive farming, forming the Karuo community. The majority of them scattered in the Hengduan Mountains region and gradually became the dominant primitive inhabitants of the area. The similarity between the Karuo culture and the various primitive cultures in the Hengduan Mountains region reflects this common ethnic lineage in terms of culture.
Finally, the origin of humans in Tibet is still a global research topic. However, based on the known archaeological artifacts, the Tibetan people are likely a multi-origin ethnic group, resulting from the long-term fusion of local indigenous populations and various incoming migrant groups from the eastern regions. Nonetheless, it is undeniable that the Tibetan people have intricate connections, whether in terms of language, cultural characteristics, or genetics, with the other ethnic groups that constitute the Chinese nation.
Tibetan People Population
During the mid-Tang Dynasty （AD618 – AD907), the Tubo Kingdom occupied the Hexi region, and “millions of Han Chinese fell into captivity.” Under Tubo’s rule for more than seventy years, due to the forced assimilation policy implemented by Tubo rulers, the majority of Han people in the Hexi region had already become “Tuboized.” The “Changbian” records in volume 320 mention more than 230 households from the four Tubo tribes, with a population of “over 2,000 people,” averaging nearly ten people per household.
During the Northern Song Dynasty （AD 960 – AD 1127）, the estimated population of the Amdo Tibetan people was approximately 2.1 million. Although we do not have data for the entire Tubo population during the Jin Dynasty（AD 1115 – AD 1234）, the Tubo population in the areas south of the Yellow River under Jin’s jurisdiction was not significantly different from that of the Northern Song Dynasty. If we consider the Tubo population in other areas under Jin’s rule, as well as the Western Xia (AD 1038 – AD 1227) and Southern Song Dynasty（AD 1127 – AD 1279） -controlled Tubo areas, it is estimated that the Tubo population under the rule of the Jin, Western Xia, and Southern Song Dynasties may have been less than that of the Northern Song Dynasty, as the Song-Jin and Jin-Xia wars during this period resulted in a decrease in the population of the Amdo Tibetan region.
Since 1951, the proportion of the Tibetan population slightly increased, with Tibetan Autonomous Regions, Sichuan, and Qinghai having significantly larger Tibetan populations and proportions compared to the Han population. The population census since 1964 shows that in all years, except for Gannan Prefecture and Tianzhu County in Gansu Province, the Tibetan population in all Tibetan Autonomous Regions greatly exceeded the Han population in terms of scale and proportion, especially in the Tibet Autonomous Region, where the Tibetan population has always been the absolute majority. After 1982, these regions experienced a trend of increasing Tibetan population proportion and decreasing Han population proportion. According to the 2010 national census, the total Tibetan population reached 6.282 million, making it the eighth largest ethnic group in China.
Branches of the Tibetan Ethnic Group
The main body of the Tibetan ethnic group consists of the ancient Tubo people. In 633 AD, Songtsen Gampo established the Tubo Dynasty in Lhasa and, through continuous conquests, integrated various ancient Qiang tribes such as Su Pi, Yang Tong, Bai Lan, Dangxiang, and Fuguo, as well as the Tuyuhun group of ancient Xianbei and some Han Chinese, forming the Tibetan ethnic group as it is today.
In addition to the traditional regions of Ü-Tsang, Amdo, and Kham, there are other independent branches that are different from the three major Tibetan regions in terms of language, customs, and attire. These branches are also important parts of the Tibetan ethnic family and they are: Gongbu Tibetan, Jarong Tibetan, Baima Tibetan, Muya Tibetan, Huazang Tibetan, Zhuocang Tibetan, Sherpa, etc.
Gongbu Tibetan People
Gongbu Tibetans are mainly located in the Nyingchi area of present-day Tibet, with Gongbu Jiangda and Nyingchi as their centers. “Gongbu” was the name of a tribe in ancient times. According to the Dunhuang Tibetan Historical Documents, it is recorded that “apart from the Zanpu Yalong king’s lineage, there were twelve small states,” and Gongbu was one of the twelve small states. Gongbu clothing is unique in Tibetan attire. Both men and women love to wear a type of long cape called “Guo Xiu”. This garment is collarless and sleeveless, worn by pulling it over the head. It is mostly black or purple. The two front and back flaps of the garment are tied together with a waistband, and it is adorned with exquisite decorations on the waistband and collar. It is made of felt in summer and fur in winter, making it suitable for people living in high mountains and dense forests. The Gongbu hat is cylindrical, with a layer of green silk sewn at the bottom and a rainbow-colored satin trim on the brim, which matches well with the “Guo Xiu” attire.
The Gongbu region is located in the middle and lower reaches of the Yarlung Tsangpo River, with a low elevation and abundant forest resources. In addition to Tibetans, there are more than ten ethnic groups such as Menba and Luoba living here. On this beautiful and fertile land, the folk customs are simple, and there are many folk crafts. It is a famous tourist destination in Tibet.
Jarong Tibetan People
The Jarong region, in Tibetan, is called “Jiaermu Cawa Rong”, which is a comprehensive name for mountains, rivers, and natural environments. Between Xiaojin and Danba, there is a famous sacred mountain in Tibet called Meru Mountain, and “Jiaermu” refers to the mountain god of this mountain. “Cawa” refers to the people living in the Caoqu River basin, and “Rong” refers to the agricultural valley area. Jarong is the Tibetan name for the regions of Xiaojin and Daofu in Sichuan, including the upper and middle reaches of the Minjiang River and the upper reaches of the Dadu River.
The uniqueness of Jarong as a distinctive branch of the Tibetan ethnic group lies mainly in its geographical environment, historical origins, and the religious, linguistic, architectural, and customary aspects formed under specific agricultural cultural backgrounds. During the Tang Dynasty, Tubo expanded eastward and stationed troops in the Dadu River and Minjiang River areas, guarding
Baima Tibetan People
Baima Tibetans mainly live in the Baima River basin in Tielou Township, Wen County, Longnan City, Gansu Province, and in Pingwu County and Jiuzhaigou County in Sichuan Province, with a population of about 14,000. Their customs, culture, and religious beliefs are different from those of other Tibetan areas. Baima Tibetans speak Tibetan, but do not know Tibetan script, and generally use Chinese characters. In addition to believing in Bon and Tibetan Buddhism, Baima Tibetans also worship natural gods such as the sun god, mountain god, fire god, and grain god, but they generally do not build temples, only offering ancestral tablets at home. Therefore, many ethnologists and historians believe that Baima Tibetans are descendants of the ancient Di people. During the Tang Dynasty, Tubo expanded eastward and occupied the entire Di area. A large number of Tubo soldiers and civilians came with the army to live with the Di people, causing some Di people to gradually lose their inherent cultural characteristics and form Tibetanized Di people, which are the ancestors of today’s Baima Tibetans.
Baima Tibetan culture has the characteristics of duality and diversity. In terms of language, there are Tibetan cognate words as well as Qiang words. The attire is also very distinctive, with a tuft of golden pheasant neck feathers and white rooster tail feathers inserted at the front of the hat, which is the symbol of Baima Tibetans. Men insert one, and women insert two or three. Men insert straight feathers to represent a good heart and character, while women insert curved feathers to symbolize beauty. This hat is called “Shaga” by the local Baima people.
Muya Tibetan People
The Tibetan people in the Muya area (between the Zhe Duo Mountain and the Yalong River in Garze Prefecture) are also known as “Muya Tibetans” because of their unique language and customs. Historically, the “Muya Re Gang” referred to the Muya area, which is the area west of Zhe Duo Mountain in Kangding County, south of Dawu County, east of Yajiang County, and north of Jiulong County. The Tibetans living in this area are called “Muya Wa”.
The origin of Muya Tibetans is still a mystery. As a branch of the Kampa Tibetans, the prevailing theory in the academic community is that they are descendants of the integration and reproduction of the ancient Tangut Qiang people and the local indigenous people. After the rise of the powerful Mongols in the north, they annihilated the Western Xia Dynasty and forced the Xixia Tangut people, who were nomadic in the Hexi Corridor, to migrate south into the Muya area of Kampa
The most distinctive feature of Muya Tibetans is their language, which is a type of Muya language called “Rongge”. The Muya language is further divided into two dialects: the eastern dialect and the western dialect. In the present-day Garze Tibetan Prefecture, the Tibetans in Wanba Township and Hongba Township in Jiulong County, who speak this language, refer to themselves as “Ben Le”, belonging to the eastern dialect of Muya language. The Tibetans in Tanggu Township of Jiulong County, Shade Township, Liuba Township, Pusharong Township, Pengbuxi Township in Kangding County, and Zhusang Township in Yajiang County, who speak this language, refer to themselves as “Muya”, belonging to the western dialect. The eastern dialect area is greatly influenced by Han culture and Yi culture, while the western dialect area is significantly influenced by Tibetan culture.
Huari Tibetan People
“Huari” means a heroic region or tribe and is the hometown of white yaks. Historically, Huari referred to the Tibetan areas north of the Huangshui River and east of the Hexi Corridor, including the Beishan area in Ledu, Huzhu, Menyuan, Datong in Qinghai, Tianzhu in Gansu. Among them, Tianzhu is the main settlement area of the Huari Tibetans, with a population of about 80,000.
The main body of the Huari Tibetans is formed by the Tubo people, a branch of the Tubo Empire, who gradually formed the main Tibetan population in the region after a branch of the Tubo army settled there. Although the Huari dialect belongs to the Amdo dialect area, it preserves a large number of ancient Tibetan vocabulary, and some pronunciations are different from the Amdo dialect in other regions.
The Huari Tibetans refer to themselves as “Bo” or “Huari Gabu”. Men often wear white felt robes, reflecting the Huari Tibetans’ special reverence for the color white and their deep ethnic identity with other Tibetan areas.
Zhuocang (Drocang) Tibetan People
The Tibetans living in Ledu, Ping’an, Huangzhong, and other counties in Haidong, Qinghai Province, refer to themselves as “Zhuocang Wa”. Their living area covers an area of about 100 square kilometers, known as “Zhuocang Longwadun” (meaning “Zhuocang Seven Valleys”). Some villages are inhabited by multiple ethnic groups, including Han, Hui, Mongolian, living together, while others are pure Tibetan villages adjacent to pure Han villages. The Tibetan life here is mainly based on agriculture, belonging to a semi-agricultural and semi-pastoral area.
It is said that the Zhuocang Tibetans originally came from Tibet. In the late 9th century, after the last ruler of the Tubo Empire, Langdarma, was killed, Tubo fell into chaos. Langdarma’s two sons, with the support of their respective maternal aristocratic powers, each established themselves as kings and established their own territories. The second son, Wosong, came to the Ali area and established the Ali royal lineage. The Guge Kingdom was established by his descendants. His fourth great-grandson, Tride, came from the rear of Tibet to Qinghai Lake and became the local leader. He gradually established the powerful Jiao-si-luo regime, controlling eastern Qinghai and Gansu, and had close relations with the Song Dynasty（AD 960 – AD 1279）. The center of the Jiao-si-luo regime was located in present-day Ledu County. The name “Zhuocang” comes from the ancestral dwelling place, which is the Zhuowo area in present-day rear Tibet. “Zhuo” means Zhuowo Long, and “Cang” refers to the ancestral lineage. The name “Zhuocang” has been used to this day.
Sherpa People
The Sherpa people, meaning “people from the east” in Tibetan, mainly inhabit the border areas of the Himalayan mountain range in China, Nepal, India, and Bhutan. They speak the Sherpa language but do not have a written script, so they use the Tibetan script. The population is approximately 40,000 people, with only about 1,200 residing within the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
There are different theories regarding the origin of the Sherpa people. Some say that during the time of Genghis Khan, a military unit located in Garze, Sichuan, was defeated by the Yuan Dynasty army and fled to settle in Gauri, Tibet, eventually becoming the Sherpa people we know today. Others claim that the Sherpas migrated to Tibet from a place in Nepal called “Sherkongbu.” Most Sherpa people agree with the latter theory. Sherpas have surnames similar to those of the Tibetan people and generally do not intermarry with people from other ethnic groups. They practice Tibetan Buddhism, mainly following the Sakya and Gelug sects, while also retaining some traditional beliefs.
Due to their lifelong residence in high-altitude regions, Sherpas are natural mountain guides. Providing guiding and logistical services to international mountaineering teams has become one of their main sources of income. Studies have shown that Sherpas have higher levels of hemoglobin in their blood compared to the average person. Since the 1920s, Sherpas have been serving as guides and porters for mountaineers. They have strong resistance to hypoxia, endure hardships, and are physically fit. Many of them have been trained in English and possess climbing skills. Almost every mountaineering expedition includes Sherpas. They have achieved “three superlatives” at the cost of their lives: the highest number of successful ascents of Mount Everest, the highest number of oxygenless ascents of Mount Everest, and the highest number of fatalities on Mount Everest (approximately 60 people). Sherpas have made invaluable contributions to the history of human mountaineering on Mount Everest.
Economic Production
Due to the scarcity of arable land on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, animal husbandry has been the mainstay of traditional Tibetan production, and its proportion in production still slightly exceeds that of agriculture. There are various types of animal husbandry production on the plateau. The pastoral areas are mainly semi-settled nomadic types that rotate grazing according to the season. Semi-agricultural and semi-pastoral areas and agricultural areas are settled nomadic and settled pastoral types.
The main types of livestock are Tibetan sheep, Tibetan goats, yaks, dzo, domesticated yaks, wild yaks, horses, mules, and donkeys. Production revolves around grazing, shearing, milking, and manure collection of cattle and sheep. Although there is also agriculture and hunting in some local areas, they still rely on the support of animal husbandry. The tools in the pastoral areas are relatively simple, with few iron tools, and mostly use cow hair or cowhide as ropes and bags, and wooden milk buckets and pack saddles. Leather kneading and wool collection are all done by hand.
Due to the cold climate, grasses grow slowly and are difficult to cut and store on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, so traditional Tibetan animal husbandry is still mainly nomadic and has not yet been settled. In terms of livestock, yaks are more common in alpine meadows, while sheep are more common in wide grasslands on the plateau. In low-altitude areas in southeastern Tibet, there are also cattle and dzo.
In river valleys and plains, people also engage in some agricultural production activities. On the plateau, various crops such as barley, wheat, peas, potatoes, and rapeseed are grown. In low-altitude areas in southeastern Tibet, rice, corn, millet, and vegetables are grown. Iron or wooden farming tools are used for cultivation, and two oxen are used to plow the land. Sowing is generally broadcast, and farming is extensive, with low yields.
Handicrafts are one of the traditional three industries, mainly concentrated around large towns and major monasteries. Craftsmen engaged in textile, wood, iron, pottery, and stone handicrafts use outdated tools and techniques. Traditional handicrafts are mostly in the form of individual family production, as a secondary occupation, with small scale and low proportion of professional craftsmen. Building houses, making wooden tools, spinning yarn, weaving woolen cloth, making nitre leather, and churning butter are all completed by family members or by exchanging labor with neighbors. In recent years, large-scale production has gradually emerged.
Traditional Tibetan production activities mostly remain in closed family self-sufficiency, so commercial development is not developed. Every autumn, after the harvest of agricultural and pastoral products, herdsmen carry salt, butter, and livestock products to exchange for grain, tea, and production and living supplies in agricultural areas, using barter in the form of barley as a currency equivalent. On this basis, some businessmen also conduct trading activities between agricultural and pastoral areas. The Khampa people are particularly known for their business acumen. Some Tibetan businessmen also go to Nepal for trade (exchanging salt for rice).
